Home > Articles > Programming

This chapter is from the book

The Limits of the Possible

Thus, software development is in trouble, not for trivial reasons, but for deep-seated ones. An understanding of the role the five core metrics play is the first step in getting out of this trouble. These metrics are related to each other, as we suggest pictorially in Figure 4-1 and as we will develop in more detail in Part II. In the meantime, however, we can draw these general conclusions:

  • If we want to get more work product (that is, more functionality, measured by some metric of size), we have to increase the amount of effort, lengthen the development time, or improve productivity. Of course, we could also augment some combination of effort, time, and productivity.
  • If we want a product of higher reliability, that, too, takes increased effort, lengthened development time, or improved productivity, or some combination of the three increases.
  • Conversely, if we want to reduce effort and/or time, we would have to limit the functionality of the product (reduce its size), accept less reliability, or increase productivity. We note, however, that productivity remains about the same in the short run, such as the time scale of a single project.
  • If we improve productivity (over a fairly lengthy time period, of course), we can achieve more functionality or more reliability at the same level of effort and time.
  • With improved productivity, we can reduce effort and time and still achieve the functionality or reliability originally intended.
  • With substantially improved productivity, we can achieve even higher levels of the other four metrics.

    Figure 4-1

    Figure 4-1: Each little gnome (or concept) has to possess the strength (measured by a metric) to support the next higher level.

Unfortunately, better productivity does not come with the snap of executive fingers. Our records of more than six thousand projects over two decades show that productivity gains come slowly, sometimes not at all. The average gain for the business projects in our database was 8 percent per year and for the more complex engineering and real-time systems, several percentage points less. In the final years of the twentieth century, the record shows even less gain.

Productivity gains at these rather low levels are not going to produce the miracles that the devotees of Internet time hope for. However, in comparison with the general level of productivity gain, these software gains stand out. Only in the final years of the twentieth century did the productivity gain of the United States economy as a whole reach 3 or 4 percent; for decades, it had been stuck just above 1 percent. Then, in the early years of the new millennium, it fell back to the 1-percent range again. The software industry, or at least the parts of it reporting their core metrics to us, has done well.

The industry’s problem, really, is to find the way in which it can make the “Faster, Better, Cheaper” mantra work. We can divide that problem into three sections:

  • We have to accept the reality that the five core metrics are interdependent, as we discussed in Chapter 2. Only productivity gains get us to all three of the “Faster, Better, Cheaper” goals simultaneously.
  • We have to actually do the things that bring about those gains. The interdependence of the core metrics does not, by itself, put best practices into effect. It does not manage projects skillfully. It does not inspire developers. It does not work smoothly with stakeholders.
  • We have to accept the necessity for metrics—at least the five core metrics and the relationship between them.

    • They make planning and estimating dependable.
    • They provide the basis for management control during project execution—the comparison of actual numbers against the planned numbers.
    • They provide evidence that the organization is actually making the productivity gains for which it is striving. That evidence, then, encourages management to continue the effort.

At best, however, productivity gains occur over the long run. Management often has to do what it can in the short run. Realizing that getting all three—faster, better, and cheaper—in the short run is impossible, managers can focus on maximizing the one or two metrics they consider urgent in a particular case:

  • If you want to get a software product out faster (in effect, reducing time), you can increase the number of people (that is, effort) assigned to the project. You can also increase the quality of that effort by assigning better qualified people to such projects. Alternatively, to achieve faster, you can sacrifice reliability, that is, spend less time getting the requirements straight or keeping them current, take little time for analysis and design, speed up coding, skip inspection, and reduce testing; in other words, release an inferior product. It is clear that a lot of software projects have gone this route.
  • If you want to get a better software product, that is, one with more functionality or more reliability, you have to allow more time or effort. With more time, that is, by spreading the same amount of effort over a longer schedule, a smaller staff can do a better job. With more effort, that is, by packing more effort into a shorter schedule, an enlarged staff can build the product in less time. But you can’t indefinitely reduce either effort or time—there are limits, as we note in the next section.
  • If you want to develop a software product cheaper, in effect, with less effort, you can reduce the emphasis on faster or better. First, you can extend the time: A smaller team over more time will get the job done at less overall cost. Second, you can skimp on better. As the wag said, “If you don’t set a specification for the product to meet, I can give it to you next week.”

Table 4-1 summarizes the relationships among the five core metrics.

Table 4-1: The only way you can fulfill the “Faster, Better, Cheaper” mantra—all at one time—is to improve productivity. As the final column indicates, improved productivity (upward arrow) provides gains in all three mantra goals. The other four columns show mixtures of gains and losses. For example, the first column, Time, reports that, to go faster, you have to reduce time. To get better or cheaper, you have to increase time.

Mantra

Time

Effort

Reliability

Size

Productivity

Faster

Better

Cheaper

InformIT Promotional Mailings & Special Offers

I would like to receive exclusive offers and hear about products from InformIT and its family of brands. I can unsubscribe at any time.

Overview


Pearson Education, Inc., 221 River Street, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, (Pearson) presents this site to provide information about products and services that can be purchased through this site.

This privacy notice provides an overview of our commitment to privacy and describes how we collect, protect, use and share personal information collected through this site. Please note that other Pearson websites and online products and services have their own separate privacy policies.

Collection and Use of Information


To conduct business and deliver products and services, Pearson collects and uses personal information in several ways in connection with this site, including:

Questions and Inquiries

For inquiries and questions, we collect the inquiry or question, together with name, contact details (email address, phone number and mailing address) and any other additional information voluntarily submitted to us through a Contact Us form or an email. We use this information to address the inquiry and respond to the question.

Online Store

For orders and purchases placed through our online store on this site, we collect order details, name, institution name and address (if applicable), email address, phone number, shipping and billing addresses, credit/debit card information, shipping options and any instructions. We use this information to complete transactions, fulfill orders, communicate with individuals placing orders or visiting the online store, and for related purposes.

Surveys

Pearson may offer opportunities to provide feedback or participate in surveys, including surveys evaluating Pearson products, services or sites. Participation is voluntary. Pearson collects information requested in the survey questions and uses the information to evaluate, support, maintain and improve products, services or sites, develop new products and services, conduct educational research and for other purposes specified in the survey.

Contests and Drawings

Occasionally, we may sponsor a contest or drawing. Participation is optional. Pearson collects name, contact information and other information specified on the entry form for the contest or drawing to conduct the contest or drawing. Pearson may collect additional personal information from the winners of a contest or drawing in order to award the prize and for tax reporting purposes, as required by law.

Newsletters

If you have elected to receive email newsletters or promotional mailings and special offers but want to unsubscribe, simply email information@informit.com.

Service Announcements

On rare occasions it is necessary to send out a strictly service related announcement. For instance, if our service is temporarily suspended for maintenance we might send users an email. Generally, users may not opt-out of these communications, though they can deactivate their account information. However, these communications are not promotional in nature.

Customer Service

We communicate with users on a regular basis to provide requested services and in regard to issues relating to their account we reply via email or phone in accordance with the users' wishes when a user submits their information through our Contact Us form.

Other Collection and Use of Information


Application and System Logs

Pearson automatically collects log data to help ensure the delivery, availability and security of this site. Log data may include technical information about how a user or visitor connected to this site, such as browser type, type of computer/device, operating system, internet service provider and IP address. We use this information for support purposes and to monitor the health of the site, identify problems, improve service, detect unauthorized access and fraudulent activity, prevent and respond to security incidents and appropriately scale computing resources.

Web Analytics

Pearson may use third party web trend analytical services, including Google Analytics, to collect visitor information, such as IP addresses, browser types, referring pages, pages visited and time spent on a particular site. While these analytical services collect and report information on an anonymous basis, they may use cookies to gather web trend information. The information gathered may enable Pearson (but not the third party web trend services) to link information with application and system log data. Pearson uses this information for system administration and to identify problems, improve service, detect unauthorized access and fraudulent activity, prevent and respond to security incidents, appropriately scale computing resources and otherwise support and deliver this site and its services.

Cookies and Related Technologies

This site uses cookies and similar technologies to personalize content, measure traffic patterns, control security, track use and access of information on this site, and provide interest-based messages and advertising. Users can manage and block the use of cookies through their browser. Disabling or blocking certain cookies may limit the functionality of this site.

Do Not Track

This site currently does not respond to Do Not Track signals.

Security


Pearson uses appropriate physical, administrative and technical security measures to protect personal information from unauthorized access, use and disclosure.

Children


This site is not directed to children under the age of 13.

Marketing


Pearson may send or direct marketing communications to users, provided that

  • Pearson will not use personal information collected or processed as a K-12 school service provider for the purpose of directed or targeted advertising.
  • Such marketing is consistent with applicable law and Pearson's legal obligations.
  • Pearson will not knowingly direct or send marketing communications to an individual who has expressed a preference not to receive marketing.
  • Where required by applicable law, express or implied consent to marketing exists and has not been withdrawn.

Pearson may provide personal information to a third party service provider on a restricted basis to provide marketing solely on behalf of Pearson or an affiliate or customer for whom Pearson is a service provider. Marketing preferences may be changed at any time.

Correcting/Updating Personal Information


If a user's personally identifiable information changes (such as your postal address or email address), we provide a way to correct or update that user's personal data provided to us. This can be done on the Account page. If a user no longer desires our service and desires to delete his or her account, please contact us at customer-service@informit.com and we will process the deletion of a user's account.

Choice/Opt-out


Users can always make an informed choice as to whether they should proceed with certain services offered by InformIT. If you choose to remove yourself from our mailing list(s) simply visit the following page and uncheck any communication you no longer want to receive: www.informit.com/u.aspx.

Sale of Personal Information


Pearson does not rent or sell personal information in exchange for any payment of money.

While Pearson does not sell personal information, as defined in Nevada law, Nevada residents may email a request for no sale of their personal information to NevadaDesignatedRequest@pearson.com.

Supplemental Privacy Statement for California Residents


California residents should read our Supplemental privacy statement for California residents in conjunction with this Privacy Notice. The Supplemental privacy statement for California residents explains Pearson's commitment to comply with California law and applies to personal information of California residents collected in connection with this site and the Services.

Sharing and Disclosure


Pearson may disclose personal information, as follows:

  • As required by law.
  • With the consent of the individual (or their parent, if the individual is a minor)
  • In response to a subpoena, court order or legal process, to the extent permitted or required by law
  • To protect the security and safety of individuals, data, assets and systems, consistent with applicable law
  • In connection the sale, joint venture or other transfer of some or all of its company or assets, subject to the provisions of this Privacy Notice
  • To investigate or address actual or suspected fraud or other illegal activities
  • To exercise its legal rights, including enforcement of the Terms of Use for this site or another contract
  • To affiliated Pearson companies and other companies and organizations who perform work for Pearson and are obligated to protect the privacy of personal information consistent with this Privacy Notice
  • To a school, organization, company or government agency, where Pearson collects or processes the personal information in a school setting or on behalf of such organization, company or government agency.

Links


This web site contains links to other sites. Please be aware that we are not responsible for the privacy practices of such other sites. We encourage our users to be aware when they leave our site and to read the privacy statements of each and every web site that collects Personal Information. This privacy statement applies solely to information collected by this web site.

Requests and Contact


Please contact us about this Privacy Notice or if you have any requests or questions relating to the privacy of your personal information.

Changes to this Privacy Notice


We may revise this Privacy Notice through an updated posting. We will identify the effective date of the revision in the posting. Often, updates are made to provide greater clarity or to comply with changes in regulatory requirements. If the updates involve material changes to the collection, protection, use or disclosure of Personal Information, Pearson will provide notice of the change through a conspicuous notice on this site or other appropriate way. Continued use of the site after the effective date of a posted revision evidences acceptance. Please contact us if you have questions or concerns about the Privacy Notice or any objection to any revisions.

Last Update: November 17, 2020