Kernel Internals in Operating Systems

By Brendan Gregg
Mar 6, 2021

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3.8 References

[Graham 68] Graham, B., “Protection in an Information Processing Utility,” Communications of the ACM, May 1968.
[Ritchie 74] Ritchie, D. M., and Thompson, K., “The UNIX Time-Sharing System,” Communications of the ACM 17, no. 7, pp. 365–75, July 1974.
[Thompson 78] Thompson, K., UNIX Implementation, Bell Laboratories, 1978.
[Bach 86] Bach, M. J., The Design of the UNIX Operating System, Prentice Hall, 1986.
[Mellor-Crummey 91] Mellor-Crummey, J. M., and Scott, M., “Algorithms for Scalable Synchronization on Shared-Memory Multiprocessors,” ACM Transactions on Computing Systems, Vol. 9, No. 1, https://www.cs.rochester.edu/u/scott/papers/1991_TOCS_synch.pdf, 1991.
[McCanne 92] McCanne, S., and Jacobson, V., “The BSD Packet Filter: A New Architecture for User-Level Packet Capture”, USENIX Winter Conference, 1993.
[Mills 94] Mills, D., “RFC 1589: A Kernel Model for Precision Timekeeping,” Network Working Group, 1994.
[Lever 00] Lever, C., Eriksen, M. A., and Molloy, S. P., “An Analysis of the TUX Web Server,” CITI Technical Report 00-8, http://www.citi.umich.edu/techreports/reports/citi-tr-00-8.pdf, 2000.
[Pike 00] Pike, R., “Systems Software Research Is Irrelevant,” http://doc.cat-v.org/bell_labs/utah2000/utah2000.pdf, 2000.
[Mauro 01] Mauro, J., and McDougall, R., Solaris Internals: Core Kernel Architecture, Prentice Hall, 2001.
[Bovet 05] Bovet, D., and Cesati, M., Understanding the Linux Kernel, 3rd Edition, O’Reilly, 2005.
[Corbet 05] Corbet, J., Rubini, A., and Kroah-Hartman, G., Linux Device Drivers, 3rd Edition, O’Reilly, 2005.
[Corbet 13a] Corbet, J., “Is the whole system idle?” LWN.net, https://lwn.net/Articles/558284, 2013.
[Corbet 13b] Corbet, J., “The multiqueue block layer,” LWN.net, https://lwn.net/Articles/552904, 2013.
[Starovoitov 13] Starovoitov, A., “[PATCH net-next] extended BPF,” Linux kernel mailing list, https://lkml.org/lkml/2013/9/30/627, 2013.
[Borkmann 14a] Borkmann, D., “net: tcp: add DCTCP congestion control algorithm,” https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/commit/?id=e3118e8359bb7c59555aca60c725106e6d78c5ce, 2014.
[Borkmann 14b] Borkmann, D., “[PATCH net-next 1/9] net: filter: add jited flag to indicate jit compiled filters,” netdev mailing list, https://lore.kernel.org/netdev/1395404418-25376-1-git-send-email-dborkman@redhat.com/T, 2014.
[Corbet 14] Corbet, J., “MCS locks and qspinlocks,” LWN.net, https://lwn.net/Articles/590243, 2014.
[Drysdale 14] Drysdale, D., “Anatomy of a system call, part 2,” LWN.net, https://lwn.net/Articles/604515, 2014.
[Yuan 14a] Yuan, P., Guo, Y., and Chen, X., “Experiences in Profile-Guided Operating System Kernel Optimization,” APSys, 2014.
[Yuan 14b] Yuan P., Guo, Y., and Chen, X., “Profile-Guided Operating System Kernel Optimization,” http://coolypf.com, 2014.
[Corbet 15] Corbet, J., “Epoll evolving,” LWN.net, https://lwn.net/Articles/633422, 2015.
[Edge 15] Edge, J., “TLS in the kernel,” LWN.net, https://lwn.net/Articles/666509, 2015.
[Heo 15] Heo, T., “Control Group v2,” Linux documentation, https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/cgroup-v2.txt, 2015.
[McKusick 15] McKusick, M. K., Neville-Neil, G. V., and Watson, R. N. M., The Design and Implementation of the FreeBSD Operating System, 2nd Edition, Addison-Wesley, 2015.
[Stewart 15] Stewart, R., Gurney, J. M., and Long, S., “Optimizing TLS for High-Bandwidth Applicationsin FreeBSD,” AsiaBSDCon, https://people.freebsd.org/~rrs/asiabsd_2015_tls.pdf, 2015.
[Cardwell 16] Cardwell, N., Cheng, Y., Stephen Gunn, C., Hassas Yeganeh, S., and Jacobson, V., “BBR: Congestion-Based Congestion Control,” ACM queue, https://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=3022184, 2016.
[Gregg 16a] Gregg, B., “Unikernel Profiling: Flame Graphs from dom0,” http://www.brendangregg.com/blog/2016-01-27/unikernel-profiling-from-dom0.html, 2016.
[Herbert 16] Herbert, T., and Starovoitov, A., “eXpress Data Path (XDP): Programmable and High Performance Networking Data Path,” https://github.com/iovisor/bpf-docs/raw/master/Express_Data_Path.pdf, 2016.
[Corbet 17] Corbet, J., “Two new block I/O schedulers for 4.12,” LWN.net, https://lwn.net/Articles/720675, 2017.
[TOP500 17] TOP500, “List Statistics,” https://www.top500.org/statistics/list, 2017.
[Gregg 18a] Gregg, B., “KPTI/KAISER Meltdown Initial Performance Regressions,” http://www.brendangregg.com/blog/2018-02-09/kpti-kaiser-meltdown-performance.html, 2018.
[Jacobson 18] Jacobson, V., “Evolving from AFAP: Teaching NICs about Time,” netdev 0x12, https://netdevconf.info/0x12/session.html?evolving-from-afap-teaching-nics-about-time, 2018.
[Gregg 19] Gregg, B., BPF Performance Tools: Linux System and Application Observability, Addison-Wesley, 2019.
[Looney 19] Looney, J., “Netflix and FreeBSD: Using Open Source to Deliver Streaming Video,” FOSDEM, https://papers.freebsd.org/2019/fosdem/looney-netflix_and_freebsd, 2019.
[Bearman 20] Bearman, I., “Exploring Profile Guided Optimization of the Linux Kernel,” Linux Plumber’s Conference, https://linuxplumbersconf.org/event/7/contributions/771, 2020.
[Google 20a] Google, “AutoFDO,” https://github.com/google/autofdo, accessed 2020.
[Linux 20a] “NO_HZ: Reducing Scheduling-Clock Ticks,” Linux documentation, https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/timers/no_hz.html, accessed 2020.
[Linux 20b] “Deadline Task Scheduling,” Linux documentation, https://www.kernel.org/doc/Documentation/scheduler/sched-deadline.rst, accessed 2020.
[Linux 20c] “MSG_ZEROCOPY,” Linux documentation, https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/networking/msg_zerocopy.html, accessed 2020.
[Linux 20d] “Softlockup Detector and Hardlockup Detector (aka nmi_watchdog),” Linux documentation, https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/admin-guide/lockup-watchdogs.html, accessed 2020.
[MirageOS 20] MirageOS, “Mirage OS,” https://mirage.io, accessed 2020.
[Owens 20] Owens, K., et al., “4. Kernel Stacks,” Linux documentation, https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/x86/kernel-stacks.html, accessed 2020.
[Tolvanen 20] Tolvanen, S., Wendling, B., and Desaulniers, N., “LTO, PGO, and AutoFDO in the Kernel,” Linux Plumber’s Conference, https://linuxplumbersconf.org/event/7/contributions/798, 2020.

3.8.1 Additional Reading

Operating systems and their kernels is a fascinating and extensive topic. This chapter summarized only the essentials. In addition to the sources mentioned in this chapter, the following are also excellent references, applicable to Linux-based operating systems and others:

[Goodheart 94] Goodheart, B., and Cox J., The Magic Garden Explained: The Internals of UNIX System V Release 4, an Open Systems Design, Prentice Hall, 1994.
[Vahalia 96] Vahalia, U., UNIX Internals: The New Frontiers, Prentice Hall, 1996.
[Singh 06] Singh, A., Mac OS X Internals: A Systems Approach, Addison-Wesley, 2006.
[McDougall 06b] McDougall, R., and Mauro, J., Solaris Internals: Solaris 10 and OpenSolaris Kernel Architecture, Prentice Hall, 2006.
[Love 10] Love, R., Linux Kernel Development, 3rd Edition, Addison-Wesley, 2010.
[Tanenbaum 14] Tanenbaum, A., and Bos, H., Modern Operating Systems, 4th Edition, Pearson, 2014.
[Yosifovich 17] Yosifovich, P., Ionescu, A., Russinovich, M. E., and Solomon, D. A., Windows Internals, Part 1 (Developer Reference), 7th Edition, Microsoft Press, 2017.

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