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Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2-downloads), 3rd Edition

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Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2-downloads), 3rd Edition

By Stuart Russell, Peter Norvig
Published Jan 11, 2011 by Pearson.

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Copyright 2010
Edition: 3rd

eBook (Adobe DRM)
ISBN-10: 0-13-264314-6
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-264314-6

This is the eBook of the printed book and may not include any media, website access codes, or print supplements that may come packaged with the bound book.

Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, 3e offers the most comprehensive, up-to-date introduction to the theory and practice of artificial intelligence. Number one in its field, this textbook is ideal for one or two-semester, undergraduate or graduate-level courses in Artificial Intelligence.

Dr. Peter Norvig, contributing Artificial Intelligence author and Professor Sebastian Thrun, a Pearson author are offering a free online course at Stanford University on artificial intelligence.

According to an article in The New York Times, the course on artificial intelligence is “one of three being offered experimentally by the Stanford computer science department to extend technology knowledge and skills beyond this elite campus to the entire world.” One of the other two courses, an introduction to database software, is being taught by Pearson author Dr. Jennifer Widom.

Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, 3e is available to purchase as an eText for your Kindle™, NOOK™, and the iPhone®/iPad®.

To learn more about the course on artificial intelligence, visit http://www.ai-class.com. To read the full New York Times article, click here.

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I Artificial Intelligence
1 Introduction
1.1 What is AI? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Foundations of Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 The History of Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 The State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 29

2 Intelligent Agents
2.1 Agents and Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2 Good Behavior: The Concept of Rationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3 The Nature of Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4 The Structure of Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 59

II Problem-solving
3 Solving Problems by Searching
3.1 Problem-Solving Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2 Example Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3 Searching for Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.4 Uninformed Search Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.5 Informed (Heuristic) Search Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.6 Heuristic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.7 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 108

4 Beyond Classical Search
4.1 Local Search Algorithms and Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.2 Local Search in Continuous Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.3 Searching with Nondeterministic Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.4 Searching with Partial Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
4.5 Online Search Agents and Unknown Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.6 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 153

5 Adversarial Search
5.1 Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.2 Optimal Decisions in Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.3 Alpha—Beta Pruning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.4 Imperfect Real-Time Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.5 Stochastic Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.6 Partially Observable Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.7 State-of-the-Art Game Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.8 Alternative Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.9 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 189

6 Constraint Satisfaction Problems
6.1 Defining Constraint Satisfaction Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.2 Constraint Propagation: Inference in CSPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.3 Backtracking Search for CSPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.4 Local Search for CSPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.5 The Structure of Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.6 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 227

III Knowledge, Reasoning, and Planning
7 Logical Agents
7.1 Knowledge-Based Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
7.2 The Wumpus World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
7.3 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
7.4 Propositional Logic: A Very Simple Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7.5 Propositional Theorem Proving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.6 Effective Propositional Model Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
7.7 Agents Based on Propositional Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.8 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 274

8 First-Order Logic
8.1 Representation Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
8.2 Syntax and Semantics of First-Order Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.3 Using First-Order Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
8.4 Knowledge Engineering in First-Order Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
8.5 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 313

9 Inference in First-Order Logic
9.1 Propositional vs. First-Order Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
9.2 Unification and Lifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
9.3 Forward Chaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
9.4 Backward Chaining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
9.5 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
9.6 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 357

10 Classical Planning
10.1 Definition of Classical Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
10.2 Algorithms for Planning as State-Space Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
10.3 Planning Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
10.4 Other Classical Planning Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
10.5 Analysis of Planning Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
10.6 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 393

11 Planning and Acting in the Real World
11.1 Time, Schedules, and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
11.2 Hierarchical Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
11.3 Planning and Acting in Nondeterministic Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
11.4 Multiagent Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
11.5 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 430

12 Knowledge Representation
12.1 Ontological Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
12.2 Categories and Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
12.3 Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
12.4 Mental Events and Mental Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
12.5 Reasoning Systems for Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
12.6 Reasoning with Default Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
12.7 The Internet Shopping World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
12.8 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 467

IV Uncertain Knowledge and Reasoning
13 Quantifying Uncertainty
13.1 Acting under Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
13.2 Basic Probability Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
13.3 Inference Using Full Joint Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
13.4 Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
13.5 Bayes’ Rule and Its Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
13.6 The Wumpus World Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
13.7 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 503

14 Probabilistic Reasoning
14.1 Representing Knowledge in an Uncertain Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
14.2 The Semantics of Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
14.3 Efficient Representation of Conditional Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
14.4 Exact Inference in Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
14.5 Approximate Inference in Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
14.6 Relational and First-Order Probability Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
14.7 Other Approaches to Uncertain Reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
14.8 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 551

15 Probabilistic Reasoning over Time
15.1 Time and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
15.2 Inference in Temporal Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
15.3 Hidden Markov Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
15.4 Kalman Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
15.5 Dynamic Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
15.6 Keeping Track of Many Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
15.7 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 603

16 Making Simple Decisions
16.1 Combining Beliefs and Desires under Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
16.2 The Basis of Utility Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
16.3 Utility Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
16.4 Multiattribute Utility Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
16.5 Decision Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
16.6 The Value of Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
16.7 Decision-Theoretic Expert Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
16.8 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 636

17 Making Complex Decisions
17.1 Sequential Decision Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
17.2 Value Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
17.3 Policy Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
17.4 Partially Observable MDPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
17.5 Decisions with Multiple Agents: Game Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
17.6 Mechanism Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
17.7 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 684

V Learning
18 Learning from Examples
18.1 Forms of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
18.2 Supervised Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
18.3 Learning Decision Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
18.4 Evaluating and Choosing the Best Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
18.5 The Theory of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
18.6 Regression and Classification with Linear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
18.7 Artificial Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
18.8 Nonparametric Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
18.9 Support Vector Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
18.10 Ensemble Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
18.11 Practical Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
18.12 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 757

19 Knowledge in Learning
19.1 A Logical Formulation of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
19.2 Knowledge in Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
19.3 Explanation-Based Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
19.4 Learning Using Relevance Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
19.5 Inductive Logic Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
19.6 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 797

20 Learning Probabilistic Models
20.1 Statistical Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
20.2 Learning with Complete Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
20.3 Learning with Hidden Variables: The EM Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
20.4 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 825

21 Reinforcement Learning
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
21.2 Passive Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
21.3 Active Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839
21.4 Generalization in Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
21.5 Policy Search . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
21.6 Applications of Reinforcement Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
21.7 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 853

VI Communicating, Perceiving, and Acting
22 Natural Language Processing
22.1 Language Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
22.2 Text Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
22.3 Information Retrieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
22.4 Information Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
22.5 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 882

23 Natural Language for Communication
23.1 Phrase Structure Grammars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
23.2 Syntactic Analysis (Parsing) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
23.3 Augmented Grammars and Semantic Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
23.4 Machine Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
23.5 Speech Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
23.6 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 918

24 Perception
24.1 Image Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
24.2 Early Image-Processing Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935
24.3 Object Recognition by Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942
24.4 Reconstructing the 3D World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
24.5 Object Recognition from Structural Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
24.6 Using Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
24.7 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 965

25 Robotics
25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
25.2 Robot Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 973
25.3 Robotic Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
25.4 Planning to Move . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
25.5 Planning Uncertain Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
25.6 Moving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
25.7 Robotic Software Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
25.8 Application Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006
25.9 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 1010

VII Conclusions
26 Philosophical Foundations
26.1 Weak AI: Can Machines Act Intelligently? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
26.2 Strong AI: Can Machines Really Think? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
26.3 The Ethics and Risks of Developing Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . 1034
26.4 Summary, Bibliographical and Historical Notes, Exercises . . . . . . . . . 1040
27 AI: The Present and Future 1044
27.1 Agent Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
27.2 Agent Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
27.3 Are We Going in the Right Direction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
27.4 What If AI Does Succeed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051

A Mathematical Background
A.1 Complexity Analysis and O() Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
A.2 Vectors, Matrices, and Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
A.3 Probability Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
B Notes on Languages and Algorithms
B.1 Defining Languages with Backus—Naur Form (BNF) . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060
B.2 Describing Algorithms with Pseudocode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
B.3 Online Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062
Bibliography 1063
Index 1095

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Pearson uses appropriate physical, administrative and technical security measures to protect personal information from unauthorized access, use and disclosure.

Children

This site is not directed to children under the age of 13.

Marketing

Pearson may send or direct marketing communications to users, provided that

Pearson will not use personal information collected or processed as a K-12 school service provider for the purpose of directed or targeted advertising.
Such marketing is consistent with applicable law and Pearson's legal obligations.
Pearson will not knowingly direct or send marketing communications to an individual who has expressed a preference not to receive marketing.
Where required by applicable law, express or implied consent to marketing exists and has not been withdrawn.

Pearson may provide personal information to a third party service provider on a restricted basis to provide marketing solely on behalf of Pearson or an affiliate or customer for whom Pearson is a service provider. Marketing preferences may be changed at any time.

Correcting/Updating Personal Information

If a user's personally identifiable information changes (such as your postal address or email address), we provide a way to correct or update that user's personal data provided to us. This can be done on the Account page. If a user no longer desires our service and desires to delete his or her account, please contact us at customer-service@informit.com and we will process the deletion of a user's account.

Choice/Opt-out

Users can always make an informed choice as to whether they should proceed with certain services offered by InformIT. If you choose to remove yourself from our mailing list(s) simply visit the following page and uncheck any communication you no longer want to receive: www.informit.com/u.aspx.

Sale of Personal Information

Pearson does not rent or sell personal information in exchange for any payment of money.

While Pearson does not sell personal information, as defined in Nevada law, Nevada residents may email a request for no sale of their personal information to NevadaDesignatedRequest@pearson.com.

Supplemental Privacy Statement for California Residents

California residents should read our Supplemental privacy statement for California residents in conjunction with this Privacy Notice. The Supplemental privacy statement for California residents explains Pearson's commitment to comply with California law and applies to personal information of California residents collected in connection with this site and the Services.

Sharing and Disclosure

Pearson may disclose personal information, as follows:

As required by law.
With the consent of the individual (or their parent, if the individual is a minor)
In response to a subpoena, court order or legal process, to the extent permitted or required by law
To protect the security and safety of individuals, data, assets and systems, consistent with applicable law
In connection the sale, joint venture or other transfer of some or all of its company or assets, subject to the provisions of this Privacy Notice
To investigate or address actual or suspected fraud or other illegal activities
To exercise its legal rights, including enforcement of the Terms of Use for this site or another contract
To affiliated Pearson companies and other companies and organizations who perform work for Pearson and are obligated to protect the privacy of personal information consistent with this Privacy Notice
To a school, organization, company or government agency, where Pearson collects or processes the personal information in a school setting or on behalf of such organization, company or government agency.

Links

This web site contains links to other sites. Please be aware that we are not responsible for the privacy practices of such other sites. We encourage our users to be aware when they leave our site and to read the privacy statements of each and every web site that collects Personal Information. This privacy statement applies solely to information collected by this web site.

Requests and Contact

Please contact us about this Privacy Notice or if you have any requests or questions relating to the privacy of your personal information.

Changes to this Privacy Notice

We may revise this Privacy Notice through an updated posting. We will identify the effective date of the revision in the posting. Often, updates are made to provide greater clarity or to comply with changes in regulatory requirements. If the updates involve material changes to the collection, protection, use or disclosure of Personal Information, Pearson will provide notice of the change through a conspicuous notice on this site or other appropriate way. Continued use of the site after the effective date of a posted revision evidences acceptance. Please contact us if you have questions or concerns about the Privacy Notice or any objection to any revisions.

Last Update: November 17, 2020

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