Managing Software Acquisition: Open Systems and COTS Products

About

Features



Description

• Copyright 2001
• Dimensions: 6-1/2" x 9-1/2"
• Pages: 400
• Edition: 1st

• Book
• ISBN-10: 0-201-70454-4
• ISBN-13: 978-0-201-70454-9

The acquisition of open systems and commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) products is an increasingly vital element of corporate and government software development. Properly managed software acquisition offers potential for significant time and cost savings over a system's lifetime. The transition from proprietary, custom-built systems to systems based on standards and commercial products is not easy, however. Managers and their staff must understand the risks and opportunities associated with this acquisition approach.

Managing Software Acquisition presents the fundamental principles and best practices for successful acquisition of open, COTS-based systems. It explores the many opportunities and challenges of this approach, defines key terms, anticipates potential problems, and discusses the effect of software acquisition on the manager's job. The information presented addresses critical concerns affecting the entire software industry; it also discusses important issues particular to government acquisition.

Managing Software Acquisition moves from a broad overview of the topic to experience-based advice on managing the transition and more detailed information on acquisition. You will find coverage of such topics as:

• Promises and pitfalls of open, COTS-based system acquisition
• Implications for industry and government--quality, loss of control, and risk
• Reference models, architectures, and standards for open systems and COTS products
• Implications for cost, schedule, performance, and staff
• Engineering practices, including defining requirements, integration, testing, deployment, and support
• Contracting strategies and relationships with vendors
• Integrated acquisition using standards and COTS products

Each major section concludes with realistic, open-ended exercises that illustrate vital issues confronting software acquisition managers. In addition, the book includes an extensive reference section containing a glossary, list of acronyms, sample questions to help organizations evaluate their needs, and more.

0201704544B05222001



Sample Content

Table of Contents

Preface.

I. GETTING STARTED.

1. An Overview of Acquisition.

The Project Manager Perspective.

Acquisition Strategies.

Looking Ahead.

Summary.

Food For Thought.

2. Promises and Pitfalls.

Key Definitions.

The Promises.

The Pitfalls.

Summary.

Food For Thought.

3. The Paradigm Shift of Open Systems and COTS Products.

Essence of the Paradigm Shift.

Consequences of the Paradigm Shift.

Marketplace Considerations.

Importance of the Interface.

Product Quality Characteristics.

The Loss of Control.

Implications for the Government.

Summary.

Food For Thought.

4. Elements of an Open, COTS-Based Approach.

An Overview of The Approach.

The Elements of the Approach.

Iteration.

Summary.

Food For Thought.

II. UNDERSTANDING THE NEW WORLD.

5. Reference Models and Architectures.

Abstraction.

Reference Models.

Architectures.

A Comparison of Reference Models and Architectures.

Trends.

Summary.

Food for Thought.

6. Standards.

What Is a Standard?

Standards Organizations and Their Processes.

Characteristics of Standards.

Standards Maturity.

Profiles.

Conformance.

Sources of More Information.

Standards in Government.

Summary.

Food For Thought.

7. Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) Products.

Kinds of Off-the-Shelf Components.

Key Characteristics of COTS Products.

Deciding to Use COTS Products.

Negotiating Between Requirements and the Marketplace.

Buyer Beware.

Government Policy Implications.

Summary.

Food for Thought.

8. Acquisition Roadmaps.

A General Approach.

Open Systems Highway.

Upgrades.

The Open, COTS-Based Path.

Integration.

Summary.

Food For Thought.

III. MANAGING THE TRANSITION.

9. How Open Systems and COTS Products Can Change Your Business.

Kinds of Changes.

Potential Changes.

Summary.

Food for Thought.

10. Special Concerns for Managers.

The Manager's Quest for Control.

Cost.

Schedule.

Performance.

People.

Transition Strategies.

Summary.

Food for Thought.

11. Engineering Practices.

Determine Concepts, Requirements, and Reference Models.

Define Architectures, Components and Interfaces.

Select Standards.

Select Implementations.

Acquire Implementations.

Integrate and Test.

Deploy and Support.

Summary.

Food for Thought.

12. Procurement Practices.

Contracting Strategies.

Contracting Documentation.

The Role of the Players.

Government Contracting Concerns.

Summary.

Food for Thought.

IV. CONSIDERING ACQUISITION.

13. An Acquisition Framework.

Defining A Framework.

Acquisition Activities.

Acquisition Events.

Relations Among Activities and Events.

Timing Considerations.

Framework Summary.

Acquisition Strategies.

Summary.

Food For Thought.

14. Acquisition Models.

Characterizing Acquisition Models.

Waterfall Model.

Refined Waterfall Model.

Spiral Acquisition Models.

Summary.

Food For Thought.

15. Acquisition Models for Open, COTS-Based Systems.

The Overall Context.

Standards.

COTS Products.

Integration of Standards and COTS Product Acquisition Elements.

Acquisition Model Considerations.

Management Implications.

Multi-Project Acquisition.

Summary.

Food For Thought.

V. CLOSING THOUGHTS.

16. Looking Ahead.

VI. APPENDIXES.

Appendix A: Glossary.
Appendix B: Acronym List.
Appendix C: Sample Questions.
Appendix D: References.
Index. 0201704544T06252001

Preface

In the rapidly changing world of software acquisition, open systems and commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) products continue to grow in importance because of their expected functional and economic advantages. This book will help you understand the many issues surrounding acquisition of open, COTS-based systems. Although our focus is on software acquisition, this book can equally apply to hardware and system acquisition. You also need to understand the relationship between open systems and COTS products. If you understand these issues, you can more easily deal with the dynamics of today's acquisition environment.

Audience

The intended audience of this book is project managers and their staffs who are involved in designing, developing, procuring, maintaining, funding, or evaluating computer systems in both private and public sectors. We use the term project manager to denote the individual responsible for completion of the acquisition activities for systems in government and industry. We use the term project staff to denote the many professionals who support the project manager. Each of these professionals has different responsibilities, concerns, and technical expertise, but the use of open systems and COTS products will affect each person in some way.

We recognize that readers may very well have experience in basic project management. We include some basic management information as background so that we can get all readers on the same page. The real difference arises, however, when we apply our management skills in the context of open, COTS-based systems. That's the challenge we want to help you address.

Purpose

The purposes of this book are to

• Define basic terms, concepts, and processes related to open systems and the use of COTS products
• Explain the potential benefits and difficulties of using an approach that relies on open systems and COTS products
• Describe how open systems and COTS products affect the project manager and the project staff
• Illustrate how to incorporate open systems and COTS products in the acquisition process
• Highlight special concerns for government managers

Terms associated with open systems and COTS products have many different definitions. Experts may not agree, and you may find a lot of hype. We need to share a common understanding of what these terms mean, and we take care in defining relevant terms.

The use of open systems and COTS products has both potential benefits and potential difficulties. In this book, we discuss both. Emphasis on an acquisition approach that uses open systems and COTS products will change the way you do your job. We hope that this book helps you identify--and be able to successfully deal with--the challenges that lie ahead.

In writing this book, our emphasis is on principles related to the acquisition of systems that are based on open systems and COTS products. If you are able to understand the principles, you are more likely to be able to deal with management issues. Thus, our focus is not toward

• Detailed technical issues. A detailed discussion of particular standards or sets of standards is outside the scope of this book. For example, we will not present a discussion of all the networking standards you may hear about. Instead, we concentrate on what such terms as standard and profile mean and discuss such topics as how standards are developed and selected and how they relate to COTS products.
• Checklists. An acquisition approach based on open systems and COTS products can be complex and challenging. Despite the temptation to reduce this complexity to a simple set of checklists, we resist such an approach. Instead, we place emphasis on the specification and application of principles that govern the acquisition process. Maybe you can develop your own checklists, appropriate to your system, based on what you will learn in this book. But don't confuse a checklist with the understanding of basic acquisition, open systems, and COTS principles.

We believe that emphasis on principles will help you more than lots of details will. In many cases, a particular approach for your system will depend: on your situation, your goals, and your approach to meet the problems you will face along the way.

Open systems and the use of COTS products present unique challenges for government programs. Because the government's business practices are inherently different from those of industry, we devote special attention to government concerns. We hope that, to some degree, we can build a bridge and develop a shared understanding between government and industry regarding acquisition issues related to open systems and COTS products.

Organization and Content

This book consists of five main parts, which contain related chapters, and four appendixes.

• Part One, Getting Started, consists of the first four chapters, which introduce the basic elements of open systems and the use of COTS products. These chapters present an overview of acquisition, describe the promises and pitfalls of the open, COTS-based approach, explore the paradigm shift to open systems and COTS products, and present the elements of an open, COTS-based approach.
• Part Two, Understanding the New World, explores various aspects of open systems and COTS products. Chapters 5-8 look at reference models and architectures, standards, commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) products, and acquisition roadmaps.
• Part Three, Managing the Transition, provides information to help you maneuver successfully in the world of open systems and COTS products. Chapters 9-12 consider how open systems and COTS products can change your business, discuss special concerns for managers, describe engineering practices, and discuss procurement practices.
• Part Four, Considering Acquisition, focuses on the acquisition context for open systems and the use of COTS products. Chapters 13-15 describe an acquisition framework used to describe various acquisition models, particularly acquisition models for open, COTS-based systems.
• Part Five, Closing Thoughts, consists of one chapter, which looks at anticipated future acquisition issues, both general and specific to the government.
• Other information is provided in the appendixes: a glossary of terms, a list of acronyms used in the book and what they mean, sample questions to help you analyze your system, and references.

This book uses two types of special notations to help you as you read this book. When we define a key term, we present it as follows.

open system: A collection of interacting software and hardware component implementations, and users

° Designed to satisfy stated needs

° Having the interface specification of components

- Fully defined

- Available to the public

- Maintained according to group consensus

° In which the component implementations conform to the interface specifications

The second type of notation is for material that you may find interesting, enlightening, humorous, or thought provoking. Sometimes, we have included anecdotes from colleagues. We present this special information in a gray box like the following.

Leadership All acquisition managers are expected to provide leadership to their organizations and their people, who must achieve the goals established by management. In a special message to Congress on urgent national needs in May 1961, President Kennedy gave a speech that included the following text: "I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish. In a very real sense, it will not be one man going to the moon--if we make this judgment affirmatively, it will be an entire nation. For all of us must work to put him there."

Each chapter includes a number of open-ended questions in a section titled Food for Thought. These items have been taken from our experience over a number of years teaching this material to audiences that include people who are involved in acquisition on a daily basis. We include these questions to illustrate some of the issues that may confront you as you conduct your job.Few "right" answers apply universally to all project managers or systems. For this reason, it is difficult to give answers to these questions; in many cases, it depends: on the circumstances that are unique to your system. It is possible, however, to trace various approaches back to the principles discussed in this book. When you complete a chapter, look at these questions and spend a bit of time thinking your way through them. You may find some of the questions difficult, but don't be frustrated by them. Deal with them in the same way you would deal with any other difficult issue. You're also encouraged to discuss them with your colleagues.

0201704544P06252001

Index

Abstraction, 61-62, 309
Accredited standards organization, 96-98
Acquirer, 6
Acquisition, 3-4

build/buy shift, 8

defined, 3

planning, 167-169

strategy, 7, 167, 257-258

Acquisition framework, 251-258

activities, 252-253

decision points, 254

defined, 251

events, 253-254

timing, 255-256, 279-281

Acquisition model, 261-300, 315-316

assumptions, 289

chain of activities, 279

comparisons, 271

COTS products, 281-283

defined, 261, 261-262

external/internal events, 275-277, 293-294

gene matching analogy, 296-297

multiproject acquisition, 297-300, 316-317

open, COTS-based, 283-287

partitioning, 287-288

project management, 295-297

spiral, 267-270, 293-294

standards, 275-281

threads, 286-287

waterfall, 262-267, 290-293

window of opportunity, 290-292

Acquisition reform, 36, 118, 241, 314
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 94-96
Anderson, Julie, 95
Application conformance, 116-117
Application Portability Profile (APP), 69, 314
Application programming interface (API), 32
Approval process, standards, 100
Architecture, 55, 74-84

architectural styles, 47

approaches, 47

defined, 74

documentation, 212

domain-specific, 47-48, 84

evolution, 76-77

generic, 82

GOA, 77-82, 156

importance, 76

integration, 156-157

interfaces, 76

layered, 70n

leverage, 77

and reference models, 61-62, 83-84

SGOAA, 79-82

and standards, 167

types of, 74-75, 211

Attribute, 67-68

Backward compatibility, 176
Baltimore fire, 90
Base standard, 105, 110
Baseline, 44, 207
Boehm, Barry W., 268
Bottom-up approach, 28, 55, 148
Budgets, 189-191
"Build or buy" decision, 8, 142, 169, 312-313
Business case, 131-132, 142
Buying Commercial and Nondevelopmental Items (CANDI), 246

Cancian, Mark, 241
CASE Data Interchange Format (CDIF), 69
Champion, 200
Checklists, xxiii
Code, 19
Coherence, 112
Collaboration, 210-211, 297-300, 316-317
"Color-of-money", 191-192
"Commercial item", 141
Commodity market, 14
Competition, 15, 19, 30, 91, 100, 128, 167, 171, 182, 186, 187, 241, 243, 343
Component, 31n, 42, 46-49

defined, 322

iteration, 53-54

open, 47

priorities, 212-213

Computer-aided software engineering (CASE), 68-69
Configuration, 176-177
Conformance, 47n, 218

application, 116-117

defined, 20

Golden sample, 115

profiles, 108, 112

reference implementation, 115

specifying/verifying, 114-115

strict/with extensions, 113

testing, 114, 219-220, 279

Consensus, 30, 99-101
Consortium

branding, 114-115

standards, 98, 119, 310

Consumer, 25-27
Contractor performance assessments, 120
Contracts, 169-170, 229-240

evaluation, 239-240

government, 315

incentives, 233

industry, 244

migration plan, 235-236

responder instructions, 238-239

RFPs, 170, 233-234

SOWs, 234-237

strategies, 229-231

types of, 232-233

Cookie specification, 37
Cooperative Engagement Capability (CEC), 242
Cost-reimbursement contract, 232-233
Costs, 4, 14, 177, 184-192

amortizations, 185

cost/benefit analysis, 187-188

development, 188

estimates, 169-170, 202

increase/decrease, 184-187

life-cycle, 188-189

portability, 16

profile, 169

testing, 174

COTS Book, The, 221
COTS products, 41-55, 125-146

acquisition activities/events, 281-287

availability, 130

benefits/liabilities, 14-22, 183

build/buy shift, 8, 142, 169, 312-313

business cases, 131-132, 142

defined, 13, 126

effects of, 165-166

government policy, 140-143

licenses/data rights, 138-140, 142-143

market segment, 128

maturity, 131

modifying, 127

new, 290-293

and open systems, 125-126

performance, 129-130, 195

requirements, 132-135

selection/evaluation, 50-51, 135-137

standards, 129

systems evolution, 169

See also Open system

Course delivery reference model, 71-74
Customer, 6
Customization, 220-222

data management, 176-177
Data rights, 140, 143, 176-177
Defense Acquisition Deskbook, 246
Defense Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement (DFARS), 246
Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA), 117, 313-314
Delivery agent, 71-73
Department of Defense (DOD)

culture and practice, 121

Defense Standardization Program, 120

directives, 245

DODISS, 117

Deployment, 43, 52
Design process, 66-67, 171
Development, 15, 26-27, 172

cost, 188

partitioning activities, 288

standards, 101-102

Direct interface, 77-78
Divide-and-conquer approach, 252
Dizard, Wilson, III, 174
Documentation, 49, 212

profile, 50

Domain, 65
Domain-specific architecture, 47-48

Efficiency, 33
Electronic Data Interchange Format (EDIF), 69
End user, 6
Engineering, 171-173, 207-225

baselining, 207

implementations, 217-220

integration, 220-224

prototyping, 49, 170-171, 211

support, 224-225

system definition, 208-213

system terminology, 208

Entity, 63-67
Escrow accounts, 219
European Computer Manufacturer's Association (ECMA), 69
Event, acquisition, 253-254
External event, 253

Federal Acquisition Regulations (FAR), 245-246
Federal standards. See Government
Filters, 222
Fire hose standards, 90
Fixed-price contract, 232
Formal standards, 309-310
Freeware, 127
Function, 64n
Functionality, 33

General Services Administration (GSA) Board of Contract Appeals, 236
Generic Open Architecture (GOA), 77-82, 156
Glue code, 223
Glue specifications, 109
Golden sample, 115
Government

budget cycles, 315

contracts, 245-246, 315

COTS policy, 140-143

and industry, 241

loss of control, 121

managers, 191-192

procurement, 240-243

SOO, 235

standards, 35-37, 92-93, 118-121, 166, 313-314

transition planning, 200

Group consensus, 99

Hardware architecture, 75
Hissam, S., 223

Implementation, 42, 50-51

conformance, 113, 218-220

developed/procured, 26-27

evaluation, 217-218

extensions, 113, 116-117, 156

integration, 155

iteration, 53-54

priorities, 212-213

product quality, 34

reference implementation, 115

reference models, 83-84

requirements, 45

Industry procurement, 240, 244-245
Industry standards, 98, 119, 310
Informative standard, 103
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IEEE), 69, 309

IEEE POSIX.0, 117

Integrated product team (IPT), 237-238
Integration, 27, 28, 51, 129

approaches, 154, 157-158

architectures, 156-157

customizing, 220-222

implementations, 155

risk, 172

standards, 155-156

tailoring, 221

testing, 52, 173, 223

Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Common Sensor (IEWCS), 186
Interface, 31-32, 42, 73

acquisition tasks, 46-49

architecture, 76

configuration, 176

direct/logical, 77-78

defined, 56

iteration, 53-54

product quality, 34

requirements, 44-45, 211

ripple effect, 151

Interface specification, 12-13, 27

adopting/defining, 26

Internal event, 253
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), 94
International Federation of the National Standardising Associations (ISA), 94
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 68, 94, 96-97
Internet, 307-309
Interoperability, 13, 16-17
Iteration, 43, 53-55, 147-148

acquisition model, 284-285

spiral model, 267-270

Job security, 196
Joint Technical Architecture (JTA), 69, 82, 314
Joint Technical Committee 1 (JTC1), 94

Kaminski, Paul G., 121
Layered architecture, 70n
Leverage, 77
Licenses, 138-139, 142-143, 190

open source software, 310

Life-cycle cost, 188-189
Linux, 310
Logical interface, 77-78

Maintenance, 33, 172

cost, 187

partitioning activities, 288

planning, 175

support, 224-225

waterfall model, 292

Management, 169-170, 253

See also Project manager

Mandatory requirement, 103, 107
Marketplace, 28-31

COTS categories, 128

requirements, 132-135

research, 48-49, 190, 201, 209-210, 316-317

standards-based, 29

survey/analysis, 209

vendor-developed products, 28-29

Mettala, Eric, 48
Migration plan, 235-236, 239
Militarized product, 130
Military standards, 120, 242
Modification, 127
Modular Avionics System Architecture (MASA), 313
Monolithic standard, 112
Multiproject acquisition, 297-300, 316-317

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 79-80
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 69, 314
National Standards System Network (NSSN), 117
Nesmith, Achsah, 90
New Attack Submarine Open System Implementation, 215
Next Generation Computer Resources (NGCR), 214, 313
Nonaccredited standards organization, 97-99
Nondevelopmental item (NDI), 127
Nongovernment standards, 35-37, 92-93
Normative standard, 103

Off-the-Shelf (OTS) item, 127-128
Open component, 47n
Open Distributed Processing (ODP), 69
Open Group, The, 117
Open source software, 128, 310-311
Open system, 41-55

approach, 42

architecture, 75

benefits/liabilities, 14-22

closed/open paths, 153-154

and COTS products, 125-126

defined, 12-13

effects of, 165-166

elements of, 42-43

roadmap, 149-150

systems evolution, 169

See also COTS product

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, 48, 68-71
Operating Systems Standards Working Group (OSSWG), 214
Optional requirement, 103, 107
Organizational change, 197
OTS item, 127-128
Packard Commission, 121
Paradigm shift, 25-28, 35-36
Parallel execution, 255-256
Peer protocol, 71
Performance, 5, 177, 194-195
Perry, William J., 121
Personnel, 195-199
Planning, 167-169, 177

maintenance, 175

migration, 235-236, 239

transition, 199-200

Plug-and-play, 17
Point-to-point integration, 155
Portability, 13, 16, 33
Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX), 91, 113, 236

IEEE POSIX.0, 117

POSIX.13 profile, 105-107

reference model, 69

Prioritization, 212-213
Private standards organization, 98
Procurement, 3, 26-27, 229-246

contracting, 229-240

defined, 229

government, 240-243

industry, 240, 244-245

partitioning activities, 288

Producer, 25-27
Product quality, 32-34
Profile

See Standards profile

Project manager, 3-6, 181-202

acquisition model, 295-297

acquisition strategy, 7

cost, 184-192

government, 191-192

loss of control, 22, 35

managerial activities, 4

and other players, 182

performance, 194-195

personnel, 195-199

procurement, 231

schedule, 193-194

style, 21-22

transition strategies, 199-201

Protocol, 71
Prototyping, 49, 170-171, 211

Quality, product, 32-34

Receptor agent, 72
Reference implementation, 115
Reference model, 42, 46, 61-74

and architectures, 83-84

course delivery, 71-74

defined, 62

domain, 65

entities, 63-67

evolution, 63

OSI, 68-71

purposes of, 63

services, 65-68

system terminology, 208

Refined waterfall model, 264-267
Refinement process, 149
Reliability, 33
Request for proposal (RFP), 170, 233-234
Requirement, 42, 171

evaluating standards, 213-214

government policy, 141

interface, 44-45, 211

mandatory/optional, 103, 107

and marketplace, 132-135

normative/informative standards, 103

ranking, 133

SOWs, 236-237

waterfall model, 267, 292-293

Reuse, 16
Ripple effect, 151
Risk management, 19, 170-171, 288

customization, 220-222

integration, 172

spiral acquisition model, 270

standards, 101-102

support, 52

Roadmap, 147
Royce, Winston W., 262
Ruggedized product, 129-130
Schedule, 4-5, 177

development, 15, 172-173

project managers, 193-194

testing, 174

Serial execution, 255-256
Service, 64-65
Service class, 65-68
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), 77
Software architecture, 75
Software Engineering Institute (SEI), 70
Space Generic Open Avionics Architecture (SGOAA), 79-82, 84
Specification, 30
Spiral acquisition model, 267-270, 293-294
Sponsor, 6
Stakeholder, 134
Standard Army Vetronics Architecture (SAVA), 313
Standards, 15, 42, 49-50, 89-124

acquisition activities/events, 275-287

approval process, 100

architecture, 167

balloting, 278-279

base, 105, 110

changes, 102

conformance, 113-117

de jure/de facto, 90-91

defined, 30

evaluating, 49, 213-214

examples of, 117-118

fire hoses, 90

formal, 309-310

generic architecture, 82

government, 35-37, 92-93, 118-121, 166, 313-314

implementations, 28

industry, 310

integration, 155-156

Internet, 307-309

iteration, 53-54

mandatory/optional, 103

marketplace, 29-31

maturity, 103-104

military, 120, 242

monolithic, 112

new/revised, 101-102, 290-293

normative/informative, 103

organizations, 91-102

performance, 195

product quality, 34

specifications, 30

subsetting, 112-113

Standards organizations, 92-102

accredited/nonaccredited, 96-99

ANSI, 94-97

consensus, 30, 99-100

fast track process, 102

ISO, 68, 94, 96-97

liaisons, 49, 214-215

new functionality, 112

risks, 101-102

Standards profile, 50, 90, 105-113

coherence, 112

conformance, 108, 112

defined, 105

gaps/incompatibilities, 109-110, 216

POSIX.13, 105-107

subsetting, 112

variations, 110-111

Statement of objectives (SOO), 235
Statement of work (SOW), 234-237
Stovall, John R., 80
Stress, 196
Strickland, Sharon, 242
Strict conformance, 113
Subsetting, 112-113
Supplier, 126
Support, 20-21, 27, 43, 52

maintenance, 224-225

vendor, 175

Surrogate agent, 71-73
Synergy, 5-6
System architecture, 75
System definition, 208-213
System requirement, 44
Systems evolution, 169

Tailoring, 221
TCP/IP, 48
Technical activities, 4, 252
Technical Architecture Framework for Information Management (TAFIM), 69, 117, 313-314
Technology insertion, 17, 186-187
Technology refreshment, 237
Terminology, system, 46
Testing, 15-16, 43

certification, 174

conformance, 114, 219-220, 279

evaluation, 137

integration, 52, 173, 223

Thread, acquisition, 286-287
Torvalds, Linus, 310
Time and materials contract, 233
Timing, 255-256, 279-281
Toaster model, 69
Top-down approach, 26n, 28, 55, 148
Trade-off, 171, 177, 234
Training, 175, 189-190, 196-197

contract team, 237

Transition agent, 72

Uniform Commercial Code, 244
Uniform Computer Information Transactions Act (UCITA), 312
Unit testing, 173
United States Coastguard, 236
UNIX, 91
Upgrading, 21, 150-152, 290-292
Usability, 33

Vendor, 6, 98, 126

escrow accounts, 219

industry standards, 310

maturity, 131

negotiation, 190

relationships, 139-140, 311-312

support, 175

VME bus card, 242

Warranty, 176-177, 190
Waterfall model, 262-267, 290-293, 312-313
Window of opportunity, 291-292
World Standards Day, 95
World Wide Web, 307-309
Wrapping, 222-223
Wray, R. B., 79-81, 84

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