Home > Articles > Hardware

Signal Integrity, Impedance and Electrical Models

Impedance is a powerful concept to describe all signal-integrity problems and solutions. Eric Bogatin discusses impedance and its relationship to signal integrity.
This chapter is from the book

This chapter is from the book

In high-speed digital systems, where signal integrity plays a significant role, we often refer to signals as either changing voltages or a changing currents. All the effects that we lump in the general category of signal integrity are due to how analog signals (those changing voltages and currents) interact with the electrical properties of the interconnects. The key electrical property with which signals interact is the impedance of the interconnects.

Impedance is defined as the ratio of the voltage to the current. We usually use the letter Z to represent impedance. The definition, which is always true, is Z = V/I. The manner in which these fundamental quantities, voltage and current, interact with the impedance of the interconnects determines all signal-integrity effects. As a signal propagates down an interconnect, it is constantly probing the impedance of the interconnect and reacting based on the answer.

If we know the impedance of the interconnect, we can accurately predict how the signals will be distorted and whether a design will meet the performance specification, before we build it.

Likewise, if we have a target spec for performance and know what the signals will be, we can sometimes specify an impedance specification for the interconnects. If we understand how the geometry and material properties affect the impedance of the interconnects, then we will be able to design the cross section, the topology, and the materials and select the other components so they will meet the impedance spec and result in a product that works the first time.

Impedance is the key term that describes every important electrical property of an interconnect. Knowing the impedance and propagation delay of an interconnect is to know almost everything about it electrically.

3.1 Describing Signal-Integrity Solutions in Terms of Impedance

Each of the four basic families of signal-integrity problems can be described based on impedance.

  1. Signal-quality problems arise because voltage signals reflect and are distorted whenever the impedance the signal sees changes. If the impedance the signal sees is always constant, there will be no reflection and the signal will continue undistorted. Attenuation effects are due to series and shunt-resistive impedances.

  2. Cross talk arises from the electric and magnetic fields coupling between two adjacent signal traces (and, of course, their return paths). The mutual capacitance and mutual inductance between the traces establishes an impedance, which determines the amount of coupled current.

  3. Rail collapse of the voltage supply is really about the impedance in the power-distribution system (PDS). A certain amount of current must flow to feed all the ICs in the system. Because of the impedance of the power and ground distribution, a voltage drop will occur as the IC current switches. This voltage drop means the power and ground rails have collapsed from their nominal values.

  4. The greatest source of EMI is from common-mode currents, driven by voltages in the ground planes, through external cables. The higher the impedance of the return current paths in the ground planes, the greater the voltage drop, or ground bounce, which will drive the radiating currents. The most common fix for EMI from cables is the use of a ferrite choke around the cable. This works by increasing the impedance the common-mode currents see, thereby reducing the amount of common-mode current.

There are a number of design rules, or guidelines, that establish constraints on the physical features of the interconnects. For example, “keep the spacing between adjacent signal traces greater than 10 mils” is a design rule to minimize cross talk. “Use power and ground planes on adjacent layers separated by less than 5 mils” is a design rule for the power and ground distribution.

Not only are the problems associated with signal integrity best described by the use of impedance, but the solutions and the design methodology for good signal integrity are also based on the use of impedance.

These rules establish a specific impedance for the physical interconnects. This impedance provides a specific environment for the signals, resulting in a desired performance. For example, keeping the power and ground planes closely spaced will result in a low impedance for the power distribution system and hence a lower voltage drop for a given power and ground current. This helps minimize rail collapse and EMI.

If we understand how the physical design of the interconnects affects their impedance, we will be able to interpret how they will interact with signals and what performance they might have.

Impedance is the Rosetta stone that links physical design and electrical performance. Our strategy is to translate system-performance needs into an impedance requirement and physical design into an impedance property.

Impedance is at the heart of the methodology we will use to solve signal-integrity problems. Once we have designed the physical system as we think it should be for optimal performance, we will translate the physical structure into its equivalent electrical circuit model. This process is called modeling.

It is the impedance of the resulting circuit model that will determine how the interconnects will affect the voltage and current signals. Once we have the circuit model, we will use a circuit simulator, such as SPICE, to predict the new waveforms as the voltage sources are affected by the impedances of the interconnects. Alternatively, behavioral models of the drivers or interconnects can be used where the interaction of the signals with the impedance, described by the behavioral model, will predict performance. This process is called simulation.

Finally, the predicted waveforms will be analyzed to determine if they meet the timing and distortion or noise specs, and are acceptable, or if the physical design has to be modified. This process flow for a new design is illustrated in Figure 3-1.

03fig01.gifFigure 3-1. Process flow for hardware design. The modeling, simulation, and evaluation steps should be implemented as early and often in the design cycle as possible.

The two key processes, modeling and simulation, are based on converting electrical properties into an impedance, and analyzing the impact of the impedance on the signals.

If we understand the impedance of each of the circuit elements used in a schematic and how the impedance is calculated for a combination of circuit elements, the electrical behavior of any model and any interconnect can be evaluated. This concept of impedance is absolutely critical in all aspects of signal-integrity analysis.

InformIT Promotional Mailings & Special Offers

I would like to receive exclusive offers and hear about products from InformIT and its family of brands. I can unsubscribe at any time.

Overview


Pearson Education, Inc., 221 River Street, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, (Pearson) presents this site to provide information about products and services that can be purchased through this site.

This privacy notice provides an overview of our commitment to privacy and describes how we collect, protect, use and share personal information collected through this site. Please note that other Pearson websites and online products and services have their own separate privacy policies.

Collection and Use of Information


To conduct business and deliver products and services, Pearson collects and uses personal information in several ways in connection with this site, including:

Questions and Inquiries

For inquiries and questions, we collect the inquiry or question, together with name, contact details (email address, phone number and mailing address) and any other additional information voluntarily submitted to us through a Contact Us form or an email. We use this information to address the inquiry and respond to the question.

Online Store

For orders and purchases placed through our online store on this site, we collect order details, name, institution name and address (if applicable), email address, phone number, shipping and billing addresses, credit/debit card information, shipping options and any instructions. We use this information to complete transactions, fulfill orders, communicate with individuals placing orders or visiting the online store, and for related purposes.

Surveys

Pearson may offer opportunities to provide feedback or participate in surveys, including surveys evaluating Pearson products, services or sites. Participation is voluntary. Pearson collects information requested in the survey questions and uses the information to evaluate, support, maintain and improve products, services or sites, develop new products and services, conduct educational research and for other purposes specified in the survey.

Contests and Drawings

Occasionally, we may sponsor a contest or drawing. Participation is optional. Pearson collects name, contact information and other information specified on the entry form for the contest or drawing to conduct the contest or drawing. Pearson may collect additional personal information from the winners of a contest or drawing in order to award the prize and for tax reporting purposes, as required by law.

Newsletters

If you have elected to receive email newsletters or promotional mailings and special offers but want to unsubscribe, simply email information@informit.com.

Service Announcements

On rare occasions it is necessary to send out a strictly service related announcement. For instance, if our service is temporarily suspended for maintenance we might send users an email. Generally, users may not opt-out of these communications, though they can deactivate their account information. However, these communications are not promotional in nature.

Customer Service

We communicate with users on a regular basis to provide requested services and in regard to issues relating to their account we reply via email or phone in accordance with the users' wishes when a user submits their information through our Contact Us form.

Other Collection and Use of Information


Application and System Logs

Pearson automatically collects log data to help ensure the delivery, availability and security of this site. Log data may include technical information about how a user or visitor connected to this site, such as browser type, type of computer/device, operating system, internet service provider and IP address. We use this information for support purposes and to monitor the health of the site, identify problems, improve service, detect unauthorized access and fraudulent activity, prevent and respond to security incidents and appropriately scale computing resources.

Web Analytics

Pearson may use third party web trend analytical services, including Google Analytics, to collect visitor information, such as IP addresses, browser types, referring pages, pages visited and time spent on a particular site. While these analytical services collect and report information on an anonymous basis, they may use cookies to gather web trend information. The information gathered may enable Pearson (but not the third party web trend services) to link information with application and system log data. Pearson uses this information for system administration and to identify problems, improve service, detect unauthorized access and fraudulent activity, prevent and respond to security incidents, appropriately scale computing resources and otherwise support and deliver this site and its services.

Cookies and Related Technologies

This site uses cookies and similar technologies to personalize content, measure traffic patterns, control security, track use and access of information on this site, and provide interest-based messages and advertising. Users can manage and block the use of cookies through their browser. Disabling or blocking certain cookies may limit the functionality of this site.

Do Not Track

This site currently does not respond to Do Not Track signals.

Security


Pearson uses appropriate physical, administrative and technical security measures to protect personal information from unauthorized access, use and disclosure.

Children


This site is not directed to children under the age of 13.

Marketing


Pearson may send or direct marketing communications to users, provided that

  • Pearson will not use personal information collected or processed as a K-12 school service provider for the purpose of directed or targeted advertising.
  • Such marketing is consistent with applicable law and Pearson's legal obligations.
  • Pearson will not knowingly direct or send marketing communications to an individual who has expressed a preference not to receive marketing.
  • Where required by applicable law, express or implied consent to marketing exists and has not been withdrawn.

Pearson may provide personal information to a third party service provider on a restricted basis to provide marketing solely on behalf of Pearson or an affiliate or customer for whom Pearson is a service provider. Marketing preferences may be changed at any time.

Correcting/Updating Personal Information


If a user's personally identifiable information changes (such as your postal address or email address), we provide a way to correct or update that user's personal data provided to us. This can be done on the Account page. If a user no longer desires our service and desires to delete his or her account, please contact us at customer-service@informit.com and we will process the deletion of a user's account.

Choice/Opt-out


Users can always make an informed choice as to whether they should proceed with certain services offered by InformIT. If you choose to remove yourself from our mailing list(s) simply visit the following page and uncheck any communication you no longer want to receive: www.informit.com/u.aspx.

Sale of Personal Information


Pearson does not rent or sell personal information in exchange for any payment of money.

While Pearson does not sell personal information, as defined in Nevada law, Nevada residents may email a request for no sale of their personal information to NevadaDesignatedRequest@pearson.com.

Supplemental Privacy Statement for California Residents


California residents should read our Supplemental privacy statement for California residents in conjunction with this Privacy Notice. The Supplemental privacy statement for California residents explains Pearson's commitment to comply with California law and applies to personal information of California residents collected in connection with this site and the Services.

Sharing and Disclosure


Pearson may disclose personal information, as follows:

  • As required by law.
  • With the consent of the individual (or their parent, if the individual is a minor)
  • In response to a subpoena, court order or legal process, to the extent permitted or required by law
  • To protect the security and safety of individuals, data, assets and systems, consistent with applicable law
  • In connection the sale, joint venture or other transfer of some or all of its company or assets, subject to the provisions of this Privacy Notice
  • To investigate or address actual or suspected fraud or other illegal activities
  • To exercise its legal rights, including enforcement of the Terms of Use for this site or another contract
  • To affiliated Pearson companies and other companies and organizations who perform work for Pearson and are obligated to protect the privacy of personal information consistent with this Privacy Notice
  • To a school, organization, company or government agency, where Pearson collects or processes the personal information in a school setting or on behalf of such organization, company or government agency.

Links


This web site contains links to other sites. Please be aware that we are not responsible for the privacy practices of such other sites. We encourage our users to be aware when they leave our site and to read the privacy statements of each and every web site that collects Personal Information. This privacy statement applies solely to information collected by this web site.

Requests and Contact


Please contact us about this Privacy Notice or if you have any requests or questions relating to the privacy of your personal information.

Changes to this Privacy Notice


We may revise this Privacy Notice through an updated posting. We will identify the effective date of the revision in the posting. Often, updates are made to provide greater clarity or to comply with changes in regulatory requirements. If the updates involve material changes to the collection, protection, use or disclosure of Personal Information, Pearson will provide notice of the change through a conspicuous notice on this site or other appropriate way. Continued use of the site after the effective date of a posted revision evidences acceptance. Please contact us if you have questions or concerns about the Privacy Notice or any objection to any revisions.

Last Update: November 17, 2020